What Basic Functions Must Animals Do To Stay Alive?
Learning Objectives
- Distinguish essential, benign, macro- and micro-food requirements for plants and animals
- Predict the symptoms of nutrient deficiencies in plants and animals
- Describe the variety of adaptations for conquering of nutrients in plants and animals
Living Cells Need Materials to Grow: Nutrients
The information below was adapted from OpenStax Biology 22.3, OpenStax Biology 23.2, and OpenStax Biological science 24.1
Macronutrients
Cells are substantially a well-organized assemblage of macromolecules and water. Remember that macromolecules are produced past the polymerization of smaller units chosen monomers. For cells to build all of the molecules required to sustain life, they need certain substances, collectively chosen nutrients. When prokaryotes grow, they obtain their nutrients from the environment. Nutrients that are required in large amounts are called macronutrients, whereas those required in smaller or trace amounts are called micronutrients. Simply a handful of elements are considered macronutrientsâ€"carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur. (A mnemonic for remembering these elements is the acronym CHONPS.)
Why are these macronutrients needed in large amounts? They are the components of organic compounds in cells, including h2o. Carbon is the major chemical element in all macromolecules: carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and many other compounds. Carbon accounts for about l percent of the limerick of the prison cell. Nitrogen represents 12 percent of the total dry weight of a typical cell and is a component of proteins, nucleic acids, and other cell constituents. About of the nitrogen available in nature is either atmospheric nitrogen (N2) or another inorganic class. Diatomic (N2) nitrogen, notwithstanding, tin can be converted into an organic grade just by certain organisms, called nitrogen-fixing organisms. Both hydrogen and oxygen are part of many organic compounds and of water. Phosphorus is required past all organisms for the synthesis of nucleotides and phospholipids. Sulfur is part of the structure of some amino acids such every bit cysteine and methionine, and is also present in several vitamins and coenzymes. Other important macronutrients are potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), and sodium (Na). Although these elements are required in smaller amounts, they are very important for the structure and role of the prokaryotic cell.
Micronutrients
In addition to these macronutrients, prokaryotes crave various metallic elements in minor amounts. These are referred to every bit micronutrients or trace elements. For example, iron is necessary for the function of the cytochromes involved in electron-send reactions. Some prokaryotes require other elementsâ€"such equally boron (B), chromium (Cr), and manganese (Mn)â€"primarily as enzyme cofactors.
Nutritional Needs and Adaptations in Plants
The information below was adjusted from OpenStax Biology 31.one, OpenStax Biological science 31.ii, and OpenStax Biology 31.iii
Essential Nutrients
Plants crave only light, water and near 20 elements to support all their biochemical needs: these 20 elements are called essential nutrients. For an chemical element to be regarded as essential, three criteria are required: 1) a plant cannot consummate its life cycle without the chemical element; two) no other element can perform the role of the element; and 3) the element is directly involved in plant nutrition.
| Essential Elements for Constitute Growth | |
|---|---|
| Macronutrients | Micronutrients |
| Carbon (C) | Iron (Fe) |
| Hydrogen (H) | Manganese (Mn) |
| Oxygen (O) | Boron (B) |
| Nitrogen (N) | Molybdenum (Mo) |
| Phosphorus (P) | Copper (Cu) |
| Potassium (K) | Zinc (Zn) |
| Calcium (Ca) | Chlorine (Cl) |
| Magnesium (Mg) | Nickel (Ni) |
| Sulfur (Southward) | Cobalt (Co) |
| Sodium (Na) | |
| Silicon (Si) | |
Macronutrients and Micronutrients
The essential elements tin can be divided into two groups: macronutrients and micronutrients. Nutrients that plants crave in larger amounts are called macronutrients. Virtually one-half of the essential elements are considered macronutrients: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium and sulfur. The showtime of these macronutrients, carbon (C), is required to form carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, and many other compounds; it is therefore nowadays in all macromolecules. On average, the dry out weight (excluding water) of a cell is fifty percent carbon. Every bit shown beneath, carbon is a key part of constitute biomolecules.
Three cellulose fibers and the chemical structure of cellulose is shown. Cellulose consists of unbranched chains of glucose subunits that class long, straight fibers.
Cellulose, the principal structural component of the establish cell wall, makes upwards over xxx pct of establish matter. Information technology is the nigh arable organic chemical compound on world. Plants are able to make their ain cellulose, but need carbon from the air to do so.
The next about abundant element in plant cells is nitrogen (N); it is function of proteins and nucleic acids. Nitrogen is likewise used in the synthesis of some vitamins. While there is an overwhelming amount of nitrogen in the air (79% of the atmosphere is nitrogen gas), the nitrogen in the air is not biologically bachelor due to the triple bond between the nitrogen atoms. Only a few species of bacteria are capable of "fixing" nitrogen to brand it bioavailable; thus nitrogen is often a limiting factor for plant growth.
Phosphorus (P), another macromolecule, is necessary to synthesize nucleic acids and phospholipids. As part of ATP, phosphorus enables food energy to be converted into chemical free energy through oxidative phosphorylation. Besides, light energy is converted into chemical energy during photophosphorylation in photosynthesis, and into chemic energy to exist extracted during respiration. Phosphorous is typically available in a course that is not readily taken up by constitute roots; the form that is bioavailable is present in pocket-sized quantities and quickly "fixed" into the bioavailable class once once again. Phosphorus is therefore frequently a limiting cistron for plant growth.
Potassium (K) is important because of its part in regulating stomatal opening and endmost. As the openings for gas exchange, stomata assistance maintain a good for you water balance; a potassium ion pump supports this process. Potassium may be nowadays at depression concentrations in some types of soil, and information technology is the third virtually common limiting gene for plant growth.
Other essential macronutrients: Hydrogen and oxygen are macronutrients that are part of many organic compounds, and also form water. Oxygen is necessary for cellular respiration; plants use oxygen to shop energy in the class of ATP. Sulfur is role of certain amino acids, such as cysteine and methionine, and is nowadays in several coenzymes. Sulfur also plays a role in photosynthesis as part of the electron transport chain, where hydrogen gradients play a key role in the conversion of calorie-free energy into ATP.
Magnesium (Mg) and calcium (Ca) are also of import macronutrients. The role of calcium is twofold: to regulate nutrient transport, and to support many enzyme functions. Magnesium is important to the photosynthetic process. These minerals, forth with the micronutrients, which are described below, as well contribute to the plant’s ionic balance.
In addition to macronutrients, organisms require various elements in pocket-size amounts. These micronutrients, or trace elements, are nowadays in very small quantities. They include boron (B), chlorine (Cl), manganese (Mn), iron (Atomic number 26), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), molybdenum (Mo), nickel (Ni), silicon (Si), and sodium (Na).
Deficiencies in whatever of these nutrients, particularly the macronutrients, tin can adversely affect plant growth. Depending on the specific food, a lack can cause stunted growth, deadening growth, or chlorosis (yellowing of the leaves). Extreme deficiencies may consequence in leaves showing signs of jail cell death.
Photo (a) shows a tomato constitute with two light-green tomato fruits. The fruits take turned dark brown on the bottom. Photo (b) shows a institute with dark-green leaves; some of the leaves accept turned yellow. Photo (c) shows a v-lobed leaf that is yellowish with greenish veins. Photograph (d) shows green palm leaves with yellow tips. Nutrient deficiency is evident in the symptoms these plants bear witness. This (a) grape tomato suffers from blossom end rot acquired by calcium deficiency. The yellowing in this (b) Frangula alnus results from magnesium deficiency. Inadequate magnesium too leads to (c) intervenal chlorosis, seen here in a sweetgum leaf. This (d) palm is afflicted by potassium deficiency. (credit c: modification of work by Jim Conrad; credit d: modification of work by Malcolm Manners)
Plants obtain inorganic elements from the soil, which serves as a natural medium for land plants. Soil is the outer loose layer that covers the surface of Earth. Soil quality is a major determinant, along with climate, of plant distribution and growth. Soil quality depends non only on the chemic composition of the soil, only too the topography (regional surface features) and the presence of living organisms. In agriculture, the history of the soil, such as the cultivating practices and previous crops, modify the characteristics and fertility of that soil.
Plants obtain food in two dissimilar ways. Autotrophic plants tin make their own nutrient from inorganic raw materials, such equally carbon dioxide and h2o, through photosynthesis in the presence of sunlight. Greenish plants are included in this group. Some plants, notwithstanding, are heterotrophic: they are totally parasitic and lacking in chlorophyll. These plants, referred to every bit holo-parasitic plants, are unable to synthesize organic carbon and describe all of their nutrients from the host institute.
Plants may also do good from microbial partners in nutrient acquisition. Particular species of bacteria and fungi have co-evolved forth with sure plants to create a mutualistic symbiotic relationship with roots. This improves the diet of both the institute and the microbe. The formation of nodules in legume plants and mycorrhization can exist considered among the nutritional adaptations of plants. Notwithstanding, these are not the only type of adaptations that we may detect; many plants accept other adaptations that allow them to thrive under specific conditions.
Nutrients from Other Sources
Some plants cannot produce their own food and must obtain their nutrition from exterior sources. This may occur with plants that are parasitic or saprophytic. Some plants are mutualistic symbionts, epiphytes, or insectivorous.
Parasitic Plants
A parasitic plant depends on its host for survival. Some parasitic plants take no leaves. An case of this is the dodder, which has a weak, cylindrical stalk that coils around the host and forms suckers. From these suckers, cells invade the host stem and grow to connect with the vascular bundles of the host. The parasitic found obtains h2o and nutrients through these connections. The establish is a full parasite (a holoparasite) because it is completely dependent on its host. Other parasitic plants (hemiparasites) are fully photosynthetic and only utilize the host for water and minerals. There are nigh 4,100 species of parasitic plants.
Saprophytes
A saprophyte is a plant that does not have chlorophyll and gets its food from expressionless matter, similar to bacteria and fungi (note that fungi are oftentimes called saprophytes, which is wrong, because fungi are not plants). Plants like these use enzymes to catechumen organic food materials into simpler forms from which they tin can blot nutrients. Most saprophytes do not directly digest dead matter: instead, they parasitize fungi that digest expressionless matter, or are mycorrhizal, ultimately obtaining photosynthate from a fungus that derived photosynthate from its host. Saprophytic plants are uncommon; merely a few species are described.
Photograph shows a establish with light pink stems reminiscent of asparagus. Bud-like appendages grow from the tips of the stems. Saprophytes, similar this Dutchmen’south piping (Monotropa hypopitys), obtain their food from dead matter and practise non have chlorophyll. (credit: modification of work by Iwona Erskine-Kellie)
Symbionts
A symbiont is a found in a symbiotic human relationship, with special adaptations such as mycorrhizae or nodule formation. Fungi also form symbiotic associations with cyanobacteria and green algae (called lichens). Lichens can sometimes be seen as colorful growths on the surface of rocks and trees. The algal partner (phycobiont) makes food autotrophically, some of which it shares with the mucus; the fungal partner (mycobiont) absorbs water and minerals from the surroundings, which are made available to the green alga. If one partner was separated from the other, they would both die.
Epiphytes
An epiphyte is a plant that grows on other plants, but is non dependent upon the other plant for diet. Epiphytes accept two types of roots: clinging aeriform roots, which absorb nutrients from humus that accumulates in the crevices of trees; and aerial roots, which absorb wet from the atmosphere.
Insectivorous Plants
An insectivorous institute has specialized leaves to attract and assimilate insects. The Venus flytrap is popularly known for its insectivorous way of diet, and has leaves that work as traps. The minerals it obtains from prey compensate for those defective in the boggy (low pH) soil of its native Northward Carolina littoral plains. At that place are three sensitive hairs in the center of each half of each leaf. The edges of each leaf are covered with long spines. Nectar secreted by the plant attracts flies to the foliage. When a fly touches the sensory hairs, the leaf immediately closes. Next, fluids and enzymes break down the casualty and minerals are absorbed by the leaf. Since this found is popular in the horticultural trade, it is threatened in its original habitat.
A Venus flytrap has specialized leaves to trap insects. (credit: "Selena N. B. H."/Flickr)
Nutritional Needs and Adaptations in Animals
The information below was adapted from OpenStax Biology 34.0, OpenStax Biological science 34.1 OpenStax Biology 34.2
Most animals obtain their nutrients by the consumption of other organisms. At the cellular level, the biological molecules necessary for animal function are amino acids, lipid molecules, nucleotides, and uncomplicated sugars. Withal, the food consumed consists of protein, fat, and circuitous carbohydrates. Animals must convert these macromolecules into the simple molecules required for maintaining cellular functions, such as assembling new molecules, cells, and tissues. The conversion of the food consumed to the nutrients required is a multi-stride procedure involving digestion and absorption. During digestion, food particles are broken down to smaller components, and later, they are absorbed by the body.
Animals obtain their nutrition from the consumption of other organisms. Depending on their diet, animals can be classified into the post-obit categories: plant eaters (herbivores), meat eaters (carnivores), and those that eat both plants and animals (omnivores). The nutrients and macromolecules present in food are non immediately accessible to the cells. There are a number of processes that modify nutrient inside the animal torso in lodge to make the nutrients and organic molecules attainable for cellular function. As animals evolved in complexity of grade and function, their digestive systems take also evolved to conform their various dietary needs.
Herbivores, Omnivores, and Carnivores
Herbivores are animals whose principal nutrient source is institute-based. Examples of herbivores, every bit shown below, include vertebrates like deer, koalas, and some bird species, too as invertebrates such as crickets and caterpillars. These animals have evolved digestive systems capable of handling big amounts of plant material. Herbivores tin can exist further classified into frugivores (fruit-eaters), granivores (seed eaters), nectivores (nectar feeders), and folivores (leaf eaters).
Herbivores, like this (a) mule deer and (b) monarch caterpillar, eat primarily institute textile. (credit a: modification of work by Bill Ebbesen; credit b: modification of work by Doug Bowman)
Carnivores are animals that consume other animals. The discussion carnivore is derived from Latin and literally ways "meat eater." Wild cats such as lions and tigers are examples of vertebrate carnivores, as are snakes and sharks, while invertebrate carnivores include sea stars, spiders, and ladybugs. Obligate carnivores are those that rely entirely on animal flesh to obtain their nutrients; examples of obligate carnivores are members of the true cat family, such as lions and cheetahs. Facultative carnivores are those that also consume non-animal food in addition to brute food. Note that there is no clear line that differentiates facultative carnivores from omnivores; dogs would be considered facultative carnivores.
Carnivores like the (a) king of beasts consume primarily meat. The (b) ladybug is also a carnivore that consumes pocket-size insects called aphids. (credit a: modification of work by Kevin Pluck; credit b: modification of work by Jon Sullivan)
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Omnivores are animals that eat both plant- and animal-derived food. In Latin, omnivore means to eat everything. Humans, bears and chickens are example of vertebrate omnivores; invertebrate omnivores include cockroaches and crayfish.
Omnivores similar the (a) bear and (b) crayfish eat both found- and fauna-based food. (credit a: modification of piece of work past Dave Menke; credit b: modification of work past Jon Sullivan)
Beast Nutritional Requirements (Human Focus)
Organic Precursors
The organic molecules required for building cellular textile and tissues must come up from food. Carbohydrates or sugars are the primary source of organic carbons in the creature body. During digestion, digestible carbohydrates are ultimately broken down into glucose and used to provide free energy through metabolic pathways. Complex carbohydrates, including polysaccharides, tin be cleaved down into glucose through biochemical modification; however, humans do not produce the enzyme cellulase and lack the power to derive glucose from the polysaccharide cellulose. In humans, these molecules provide the fiber required for moving waste through the large intestine and a salubrious colon. The intestinal flora in the human gut are able to extract some nutrition from these plant fibers. The excess sugars in the body are converted into glycogen and stored in the liver and muscles for later on employ. Glycogen stores are used to fuel prolonged exertions, such as long-distance running, and to provide energy during nutrient shortage. Excess glycogen tin can be converted to fats, which are stored in the lower layer of the skin of mammals for insulation and energy storage. Excess digestible carbohydrates are stored by mammals in order to survive famine and aid in mobility.
Another important requirement is that of nitrogen. Poly peptide catabolism provides a source of organic nitrogen. Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins and poly peptide breakup provides amino acids that are used for cellular part. The carbon and nitrogen derived from these become the building cake for nucleotides, nucleic acids, proteins, cells, and tissues. Excess nitrogen must be excreted as it is toxic. Fats add season to food and promote a sense of satiety or fullness. Fatty foods are also significant sources of free energy because 1 gram of fat contains nine calories. Fats are required in the diet to help the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins and the production of fat-soluble hormones.
Essential Nutrients
While the brute body can synthesize many of the molecules required for function from the organic precursors, there are some nutrients that need to be consumed from food. These nutrients are termed essential nutrients, pregnant they must be eaten, and the body cannot produce them.
The omega-3 alpha-linolenic acrid and the omega-6 linoleic acid are essential fat acids needed to make some membrane phospholipids. Vitamins are some other form of essential organic molecules that are required in small quantities for many enzymes to function and, for this reason, are considered to exist co-enzymes. Absenteeism or low levels of vitamins tin have a dramatic effect on wellness, every bit outlined in the tables beneath. Both fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins must be obtained from food. Minerals are inorganic essential nutrients that must exist obtained from food. Among their many functions, minerals aid in structure and regulation and are considered co-factors. Certain amino acids also must be procured from food and cannot exist synthesized past the trunk. These amino acids are the “essential†amino acids. The man body can synthesize only 11 of the xx required amino acids; the rest must be obtained from food in the grade of protein. When eaten, proteins are broken down into their amino acrid building blocks and are then used most immediately to synthesize new proteins needed by the body. The essential amino acids are listed beneath (note, you are non required to memorize vitamins and minerals included in these tables).
| H2o-soluble Essential Vitamins | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Vitamin | Part | Deficiencies Can Lead To | Sources |
| Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) | Needed by the torso to process lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates Coenzyme removes COtwo from organic compounds | Muscle weakness, Beriberi: reduced heart function, CNS problems | Milk, meat, dried beans, whole grains |
| Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) | Takes an active role in metabolism, aiding in the conversion of food to free energy (FAD and FMN) | Cracks or sores on the outer surface of the lips (cheliosis); inflammation and redness of the tongue; moist, scaly skin inflammation (seborrheic dermatitis) | Meat, eggs, enriched grains, vegetables |
| Vitamin Biii (Niacin) | Used by the torso to release energy from carbohydrates and to process booze; required for the synthesis of sex hormones; component of coenzyme NAD+ and NADP+ | Pellagra, which can result in dermatitis, diarrhea, dementia, and expiry | Meat, eggs, grains, basics, potatoes |
| Vitamin Bfive (Pantothenic acid) | Assists in producing energy from foods (lipids, in item); component of coenzyme A | Fatigue, poor coordination, retarded growth, numbness, tingling of hands and feet | Meat, whole grains, milk, fruits, vegetables |
| Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) | The main vitamin for processing amino acids and lipids; also helps convert nutrients into energy | Irritability, depression, confusion, mouth sores or ulcers, anemia, muscular twitching | Meat, dairy products, whole grains, orange juice |
| Vitamin B7 (Biotin) | Used in free energy and amino acrid metabolism, fatty synthesis, and fat breakdown; helps the trunk apply blood sugar | Hair loss, dermatitis, depression, numbness and tingling in the extremities; neuromuscular disorders | Meat, eggs, legumes and other vegetables |
| Vitamin B9 (Folic acid) | Assists the normal evolution of cells, particularly during fetal evolution; helps metabolize nucleic and amino acids | Deficiency during pregnancy is associated with birth defects, such equally neural tube defects and anemia | Leafy green vegetables, whole wheat, fruits, basics, legumes |
| Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin) | Maintains healthy nervous arrangement and assists with blood cell germination; coenzyme in nucleic acid metabolism | Anemia, neurological disorders, numbness, loss of residual | Meat, eggs, animal products |
| Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid) | Helps maintain connective tissue: bone, cartilage, and dentin; boosts the immune system | Scurvy, which results in haemorrhage, pilus and tooth loss; joint hurting and swelling; delayed wound healing | Citrus fruits, broccoli, tomatoes, red sweetness bong peppers |
| Fat-soluble Essential Vitamins | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Vitamin | Function | Deficiencies Can Lead To | Sources |
| Vitamin A (Retinol) | Critical to the development of bones, teeth, and pare; helps maintain eyesight, enhances the allowed organisation, fetal evolution, gene expression | Night-blindness, skin disorders, impaired amnesty | Dark green leafy vegetables, xanthous-orangish vegetables fruits, milk, butter |
| Vitamin D | Critical for calcium assimilation for bone development and strength; maintains a stable nervous system; maintains a normal and stiff heartbeat; helps in claret clotting | Rickets, osteomalacia, amnesty | Cod liver oil, milk, egg yolk |
| Vitamin East (Tocopherol) | Lessens oxidative damage of cells, and prevents lung harm from pollutants; vital to the immune system | Deficiency is rare; anemia, nervous system degeneration | Wheat germ oil, unrefined vegetable oils, nuts, seeds, grains |
| Vitamin K (Phylloquinone) | Essential to blood clotting | Bleeding and easy bruising | Leafy green vegetables, tea |
| Minerals and Their Role in the Human being Body | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Mineral | Function | Deficiencies Can Pb To | Sources |
| *Calcium | Needed for muscle and neuron function; heart wellness; builds os and supports synthesis and part of claret cells; nerve function | Osteoporosis, rickets, musculus spasms, impaired growth | Milk, yogurt, fish, dark-green leafy vegetables, legumes |
| *Chlorine | Needed for production of hydrochloric acid (HCl) in the stomach and nerve function; osmotic balance | Muscle cramps, mood disturbances, reduced appetite | Table salt |
| Copper (trace amounts) | Required component of many redox enzymes, including cytochrome c oxidase; cofactor for hemoglobin synthesis | Copper deficiency is rare | Liver, oysters, cocoa, chocolate, sesame, basics |
| Iodine | Required for the synthesis of thyroid hormones | Goiter | Seafood, iodized salt, dairy products |
| Iron | Required for many proteins and enzymes, notably hemoglobin, to preclude anemia | Anemia, which causes poor concentration, fatigue, and poor immune function | Red meat, leafy green vegetables, fish (tuna, salmon), eggs, dried fruits, beans, whole grains |
| *Magnesium | Required co-factor for ATP formation; bone germination; normal membrane functions; muscle office | Mood disturbances, musculus spasms | Whole grains, leafy green vegetables |
| Manganese (trace amounts) | A cofactor in enzyme functions; trace amounts are required | Manganese deficiency is rare | Common in about foods |
| Molybdenum (trace amounts) | Acts as a cofactor for three essential enzymes in humans: sulfite oxidase, xanthine oxidase, and aldehyde oxidase | Molybdenum deficiency is rare | |
| *Phosphorus | A component of bones and teeth; helps regulate acrid-base residuum; nucleotide synthesis | Weakness, os abnormalities, calcium loss | Milk, hard cheese, whole grains, meats |
| *Potassium | Vital for muscles, center, and nerve function | Cardiac rhythm disturbance, muscle weakness | Legumes, potato skin, tomatoes, bananas |
| Selenium (trace amounts) | A cofactor essential to action of antioxidant enzymes similar glutathione peroxidase; trace amounts are required | Selenium deficiency is rare | Common in most foods |
| *Sodium | Systemic electrolyte required for many functions; acid-base residuum; water balance; nervus office | Musculus cramps, fatigue, reduced ambition | Table table salt |
| Zinc (trace amounts) | Required for several enzymes such as carboxypeptidase, liver alcohol dehydrogenase, and carbonic anhydrase | Anemia, poor wound healing, can lead to short stature | Mutual in most foods |
| *Greater than 200mg/twenty-four hour period required | |||
| Essential Amino Acids | |
|---|---|
| Amino acids that must be consumed | Amino acids anabolized by the trunk |
| isoleucine | alanine |
| leucine | selenocysteine |
| lysine | aspartate |
| methionine | cysteine |
| phenylalanine | glutamate |
| tryptophan | glycine |
| valine | proline |
| histidine* | serine |
| threonine | tyrosine |
| arginine* | asparagine |
| *The human trunk can synthesize histidine and arginine, only not in the quantities required, especially for growing children. | |
This video provides a summary of human nutrition needs:
Source: https://organismalbio.biosci.gatech.edu/nutrition-transport-and-homeostasis/nutrition-needs-and-adaptations/
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